“Academic and Professional Development Series on Practices of the PhD Research Project”

Liton Furukawa

ROYAL ROADS UNIVERSITY

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to exam fifteen academic research works which principally focus on peer reviewed papers for the purpose of contributing to a discussion on the topic of ideas related to a PhD research project. The researcher commits to sharing the findings of research problems, thematic concepts and specific theories to support the topics of multicultural settings, languages, curriculum and oversea study experience as well as providing the potential suitable methodologies in terms of analysis of these fifteen academic research works. This paper consists of two parts: 1. Introducing and presenting an overview of the meticulous selective fifteen academic research works. 2. Scrutinizing each research work and summarizing adequate evidence that could identify this PhD research project. Precisely, indicating the evident attributes of each research work and investigating the calculation of each research work as it relates to the PhD research project.

Keywords: academic research, peer reviewed paper, PhD research project

Introduction and Overview

This paper selects fifteen academic research works from different levels of journals and examines the publications that are oriented toward comparative education, contemporary education, international education, and higher education. These academic and professional journals, specifically tailored for PhD students, enable them to recognize and build on the topics of multicultural settings, languages, curriculum and overseas study experience and to learn to demonstrate potential suitable methodologies. The analysis of these academic research works also support PhD research projects in the successful and timely completion of PhD dissertation. To acquire these fifteen academic research works the following two stances should be considered to provide some further discussion regarding the prospective principles and practices of the PhD research project.

Technological Advances

Rapid changes ensure that researchers, scholars and educators must vigorously join in research progress in order to remain competent and current in their chosen field of practice. Pursuing new information depends on where and how the scholars search for material, and once found, how the information is organized. Richardson (2006) declaims: Today's students, of almost any age, are far ahead of their teachers in computer literacy... [They are] 'Digital Natives' who are well versed in the uses and etiquette of computers, digital cameras, cell phones, text messaging, weblogs, and the like. (p.6)

Using CALL which stands for Computer-assisted Language Learning to enhance research is highly recommended in this paper. Being academic requires employing skills in research and presentation, encompassing advanced search techniques. To find accurate and reliable sources of information, government and university sites often provide intelligence and information databases such ERIC, JSTOR, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, IEEE Xplore and WorldCat. In this case, truncation -“*” is used at the end of key words; for example, in this research, it puts “multiculturalism*, language*, overseas study experience*” then finds a number of related topics. It may refer this information to an E-mail or save in the computer as a smart tip. Citation of source information is very important when it looks for information from the database. Choosing an online citation management tool such as RefWorks, EndNote and Procite and Reference Manager to organize the references is also a crucial step. This study chose RefWorks because on can use Write-N-Cite to insert references into the Microsoft Word document whether it is a foot-note or an in-text citation. Also, it should avoid the risk of losing all information by having a multiple backup plan to save them. It could use internet tools but save in difference places, for instance E-mail and blog, use hard devices such as computer and USB flash drive. This case used recycle paper, for example, some paper only used one side, and used the other side to print the all information but it chose a smaller font to save the resource.

Be Academic

Using the metaphor of “learning as knowing” Resnick (1989) aptly states that “learning occurs not by recording information but by interpreting it” (p. 1). The relationship between “to know” and “to understand” Biggs (1987) argues that these are fairly different definitions of the concept. This concept arises from research that studies how researchers, scholars, educators understand the knowledge after the case study; the “To know” and “to understand” interplay between the receiving of new information and existing concepts in the learning process. This paper argues the learning process should involve sophisticated levels of thinking and gain the meaning of knowledge. Sumara (2002) emphasizes that “information alone does not guarantee understanding” and “information needs interpretation and the latter needs a learned method” (p. 36). He also feels that this interpretation skill must be taught. Learning process is achieved information that relates to the research topic, through analysis of process, then structures and interprets it, as original and innovative knowledge. This is an important learning outcome from this experience.

Be Explicit

The purpose of this particular topic of research is to achieve a comprehensive knowledge regarding the adaptation experiences of participants during an overseas study in a Canadian setting. This paper examined research literature on multicultural languages, and overseas learning experiences which are relevant to the present study. In this part, the concept of existentialism and multiculturalism will be researched among in these fifteen academic works. Maxine Greene's concept and perspectives of theory of human nature, theory of learning, and theory of society will be define in these works. Overseas study experience and program will be addressed based on academic works. The selected academic research works reflect the on-going deliberation between quantitative and qualitative approach in social science methodology. Nevertheless, this PhD research project embraces the naturalist qualitative research paradigm which focuses on the approach of cultural adoption and the positivist quantitative research paradigm with particular attention on ethnographic inquiry.

Examining Fifteen Academic Research Works

This part of the paper scrutinizes fifteen research works and summarizes adequate evidence to identify the theme of the PhD research project and build literature review while clearly indicating the evident attributes of each research work and investigating the calculation of each research work and its influence on the PhD research project.

Black, J. S., & Mendenhall, M. (1990). Cross-cultural training effectiveness: A review and theory framework for future research. Academy of Management Review, 15(1), 113-136.

The purpose of this article is to challenge the perception of cross-cultural adaptation as a dynamic cycle of stress according to intensification of internationalization in the economic, political, and social situation. This peer reviewed paper concentrates on the internationalization needs to have efficacious cross-cultural training. Therefore, the authors embark on the analysis of literature in regards to the certain research of cross-cultural training and conclude cross-cultural training in general is effective. Correspondingly, this research proposes a theoretical framework based on social learning theory. Thus, adaptation and growth is a process of on-going training between oneself and his or her surroundings, to discover an effective cross-cultural training. As a controversial issue, this work facilitates a context of international and domestic phases in the PhD research project.

Crystal, D. S., Kato, K., & Olson, S. (1995). Attitudes towards self-change: A comparison of Japanese and American university students. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 18(4), 577-593. doi: 10.1177/016502549501800401

The authors conducted a thorough investigation of experimentation of American and Japanese students and whether they change cognitions and behaviours in this peer reviewed paper. This work explores the possibilities of three aspects if they willing to change from those sample students of the two counties including: (1) the approaches one would adopt to effect the changes, (2) what are the barriers one would conquer, (3) and what are the possibilities one would desire to make the changes. This research exams two different cultural responses regarding the specific approach to identify the rate of change of cognitions and behaviours; the data of this work provides the perspective of different culture with collectivistic and individualistic views. However, with the three aspects that the authors address in the questionnaire, to some extent, it is hard to defy the social situation as in the instance of the interdependent self. Although, the content of this paper focuses on Japanese and American students, this empirical research influence in the method of behaviour-oriented strategies offers a broad view for the PhD research project.

Dewing, M. (2013). Canadian multiculturalism. Legal and Social Affairs Division Parliamentary Information and Research Service, Library of Parliament, 20. Retrieved from http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2009-20-e.pdf

This is a research paper that examines the meaning of the word multiculturalism within a Canadian context. In particular, this paper features historical background, current information and references, and many anticipate the emergence of the issues. This study focuses on the concept of Canadian multiculturalism as a sociological fact and as ideology which infers in these two different definitions. Moreover, this research significantly contributes, the part of a sociological fact, multiculturalism depicts to the manifestation of racial and ethnic groups with cultural diversity. Another part of multiculturalism delivers management of diversity with official policies. Therefore, this work not only aims to provide clarity to the term multiculturalism, one of keys for the PhD research project, but also evaluates what are the barriers between social adaption in linguistic and cultural terms according to the particular research environment in Canada.

Freed, B. F. (1998). An overview of issues and research in language learning in a study abroad setting. The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 4(2), 31-60.

This is a peer reviewed paper and the purpose of this study aims to provide a reference overview of contemporary research issues on literature exploring students learning a second language (L2) in a study abroad context. Also, this paper ascertains certain matters for scholars who challenge this topic in greater depth. The author predominantly explores the relationships between language learning and study abroad experience focusing on two general areas. The first area relates to a continuum of language abilities and the second area indicates the perceptions of those students who study abroad acquire a learning experience and how the perceptions impact the students’ learning journey. According to these two specific research areas, these papers conduct two research general categories which is summarized research of test-based studies of a sojourn abroad and provide a larger vision of classification. This work draws a large landscape for the PhD research project and the authentic research data offers accurate analysis of literature in the field of language learning and study abroad experience. It arouses certain new discussions through the detailed comparison of investigations of this work. Especially, the author points out that to design the amalgamation of quantitative and qualitative research to conduct a result with descriptive interpretation in a study abroad context will be considerable to the PhD research project as a stratagem.

Greene, M. (1971). Curriculum and consciousness. Teachers College Record, 73(2), 253-269.

The author, an American distinguished educator, philosopher, social activist and teacher, Dr. Maxine Green, proposes from a standpoint of learners a psychological and historical configuration in this philosophical research paper. Dr. Greene establishes that the integration of curriculum and consciousness in education, one can significantly involve continuous growth and rediscovery as personal experiences with individual perspectives conducting cognitive action in his or her life-world. This notion interconnects with a number of other philosophers and educators such as Madeleine Grumet, Paulo Freire, and Fritjof Capra. Dr. Greene starts with the argumentation of John Dewey’s work and explores certain theories relating to the theory of learning, theory of human-nature, and theory of society from the viewpoint of existentialism. The connection between the PhD research project and this paper is both works try to persuade a structure of socially prescribed knowledge which means exploring the learning experience with the uncertain and the possibilities for life world. Definitely, Dr. Greene not only inspires the concepts and ideas for the future research, but also helps the research project to discover a proper learning mode.

Greene, M. (1993). The passions of pluralism multiculturalism and the expanding community. Educational Researcher, 22(1), 13-18. doi: 10.3102/0013189X022001013

The author is not only a writer but also a philosopher, inquirer and artist. Dr. Greene advocates that each individual is unique and one has a right to be heard and recognized in a diverse society. This concept is fully depicted in this research paper for contemporary issues. Precisely, continuing to grow and expand in society, Dr. Greene offers a grip of multiculturalism creating the phenomenon of pluralism as inevitable in the cultural diverse communities. Similarly, another educator and philosopher, John Dewey, claims an idea of a Great Community influenced this article in certain facets. On the one hand, this research exhibits a sense of plurality as this article adopts the imaginative works and philosophic and ethnographic books as texts to portraying the unheard thoughts, feelings and silenced opinions of a minority. On the another hand, the author tries to discover approaches to repair silence and invisibility which means she pursues a connectedness for concreting multiple voices and difference cultural groups with diverse backgrounds. Consequently, this research supports the theme for the PhD research project reshaping the concept of multiculturalism and incarnates to a case study such as to substantiate the Global Community Program. Also, ethnographic studies, as this article mentions, might apply to the PhD research project.

Masemann, V. L. (1982). Critical ethnography in the study of comparative education. Comparative Education Review, 26(1), 1-15.

Reviewing the contemporary perspectives in educational research, this journal paper adopts critical ethnography while infusing the study of comparative education. The author not only identifies the term critical ethnography, but also critically clarifies certain other theories of connection to this approach. Specifically, this polemic essay narrates critical ethnography of sociological, anthropological, interpretive, and critical approaches in comparative education. Also, the author justifies the parameters with these approaches and analyzes the implication of these studies in the field of comparative education. Hence, this intimate research offers inside views accommodating the PhD research project to an inquiry of suitable methodology, especially categorizing ethnography into different versions depending on one’s theoretical orientation. This work delivers an understanding of complex human realities from particular research.

Miller, J. P., & Seller, W. (1990). Curriculum: Perspectives and practice. Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman.

The theme of this research book contains three major orientations to curriculum: the Transmission Perspective, the Transaction Perspective, and the Transformation Perspective. These two sophisticated authors compare the three curriculum perspectives and provide insights for the development of curriculum concepts in present study in terms of philosophical, psychological, and social foundations. This work is relevant to the PhD research project embracing the following elements. First, the authors outline practical issue dilemmas for which educators, curriculum developers, and school administrators need to pay attention. This aspect instigates the research gap between understanding the theories and the implementation of the theories. Second, in this work of spectrum to curricular perspectives which is the field of curriculum from various lenses, it assists one in exploring the analytic world view from an integrated perspective.

Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada. (2010). The current state of multiculturalism in Canada and research themes on Canadian multiculturalism 2008– 2010 (Catalogue No. Ci96). Retrieved from http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/pdf/pub/multi-state.pdf

This is a report and it conducted both literature reviews and interviews to assist the Department of Citizenship and Immigration to define which matter of multiculturalism are imperative to a countrywide issue. Moreover, six academics involved in this project are assigned by the Multiculturalism and Human Rights Branch of the Department of Canadian Heritage to develop further research themes on Canadian multiculturalism for next two years. This report summarizes the years from 2006 to 2008, and articulates the research proposal for the research themes for the years 2008 to 2010. This report catalogues 48 themes from different regional reports and six to eight potential themes into an adaptable set. As a result, this report provides a broader landscape and indeed an international outline for viewing the term multiculturalism, arouses the research question, affords the indispensable research background and connects context between research and circumstance for the PhD research project. Furthermore, this report will be used as an example for developing the PhD research project providing conducted further step.

Pinar, W. (Ed.). (1998). The passionate mind of Maxine Greene: “I am –not yet”. Bristol, PA: Falmer Press.

Dr. Pinar elaborately edited this book as the fruit of the most profound philosopher of education –Dr. Maxine Greene. Significantly, the book begins and concludes with a notable autobiographical statement from Dr. Greene’s own speech. Moreover, in a scholarly manner, Dr. Pinar methodically analyzes and examines the following aspects: (1) investigating Dr. Greene’s four books such as Teacher as Stranger (1973), Landscapes of Learning (1978), Dialectic of Freedom (1988), and Releasing the Imagination (1995); (2) examining the notion of intellectual and aesthetic influences in terms of Dr. Greene’s theory; (3) and studying the various specializations of Dr. Greene’s wide-ranging field in education; the teaching of English, arts education, philosophy of education, curriculum studies, religious education, cognitive theory, and theory of teaching. This book influences the PhD research project in the general ideas of research concept as the author represents exhaustive studying of Dr. Greene’s ideas and theories in systematic way. Indeed, Dr. Greene’s works arguably impacts a number of teachers in North America. She is recognized as a leader for educational PhD research projects. The authors of each chapter provide a presupposition for the possibilities of the PhD research project and the potential value of philosophy in education, teacher education, and curriculum studies.

Sleeter, C.E., & Grant, C. A. (2009). Making choices for multicultural education: Five approaches to race, class and gender. New York: Wiley.

This research book launches the notion of multicultural education to investigate how to exert this concept into the authentic classroom and propositions five dissimilar approaches to deal with the issues in the classroom. The writing style of this paper considers a range of audiences such as students, teacher, school boards, scholars, researchers, and politicians. The two authors show how schools reflect broad patterns of institutional discrimination. Furthermore, the authors recommend that scholars explore the informed theoretical perspective on multicultural education which is a warning to further studies in this field. Definitely, the five approaches are applicable to the PhD research project by instituting practice into intervention systems in a case study.

Taylor, E.W. (1994a). A learning model for becoming interculturally competent. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 18(3), 389-408.

As a peer reviewed research paper, this article questions the view that the interculturally competent can gradually work and live successfully in interdependent societies with inadequate resources. This is a contemporary crisis of topic; however, only few researchers focus on the learning perspective which this article defines as a tangible education program that helps students through the learning process. Moreover, the author emphasizes that the program needs to be refined and the factors investigated during the students’ intercultural experience. This study assists the PhD research project in how to assess the factors that affect a case study in a specific learning environment.

Taylor, E.W. (1994b). Intercultural competency: A transformative learning process. Adult Education Quarterly, 44(3), 154-174.

This is another substantial work. The author develops the previous notion of intercultural competency is an adaptive capacity in this peer reviewed research paper. The author addresses an attitude to view an inclusive and integrative stand that one could adopt the living circumstance in intercultural experiences. From the view of a learning perspective, this research explores a model which applies a transformative learning theory in adult education and it leads this learning process towards intercultural competency. This paper accurately identified two stages: (1) explaining the learning process of intercultural competency; (2) studying the theory of perspective transformation to critically reflect one’s learning and changes in this model. This qualitative research dramatically provides an example for the PhD research project and from this learning model sketches a new impending learning model. Likewise, this research involves twelve participants who are at least twenty-five years of age in a series of detailed interviews. Although one could challenge the age of the group's program participants, this article will be a noteworthy reference for the PhD research project.

Winter, E., & Madularea, A. (2014). Multiculturalism research synthesis 2009 -2013. Retrieved from http://ceris.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/CERIS-Research-Synthesis-on-Multiculturalism.pdf

This is a report piloted by the Centre of Excellence for Research on Immigration and Settlement (CERIS) which is a research synthesis project under the department of Citizenship and Immigration Canada, Ottawa. The key analysis of this research synthesis embraces the five central aspects of Canadian immigration on the domestic front including multiculturalism. This report particularly addresses and investigates the recent research related to this theme for the years 2009 to 2013. Each research work sorts and arranges 180 researches works, and then ascertains four comprehensive themes: (1) debating multiculturalism, (2) social differentiation, (3) multiculturalism and public institutions, and (4) international perspectives. First, the argumentation of the term multiculturalism is the sparkling point according to the theme reported in this article and expounds on what this theme in a Canadian context implies which provoke scholars, researchers, and politicians to have a number of approaches when dealing with cultural diversity. Second, the theme of social differentiation and international perspectives will influence the PhD research project in terms of this report by pointing out the large volume of literature focusing on the different social categories and the perspective ofinternational newcomers to Canada. Finally, the information from this report is up-to-date and from a reliable source; thus, the PhD research project would adopt this document as one of references.

Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The Japanese EFL context. The Modern Language Journal, 86(1), 54–66. doi: 10.1111/1540-4781.00136

The study of willingness to communicate (WTC) commences with awareness of language education. However, the author produces this article not only as a peer reviewed research paper but also proposes a notion of how to exam the variables in communication between one's first language (L1) and second language (L2) individually within a Japanese context. Using the model of the WTC and another socio-educational model as a theoretical guiding framework, the author probed 297 Japanese students at the university level and learning English as a foreign language. It mentioned that this research adopts a newfangled technology -AMOS (version 4.0) -testing a latent variable which is international posture. The hypothesis of this research investigates whether international posture captures the general attitude; in other words, affect motivation of the international community and foreign language learning in Japan. Motivation is one of the significant factors for self-confidence in learning L2 and also this factor influences proficiency that one learns English as L2. The data from the model of structural equation shows that international posture positively influences motivation and it monitors willingness to communicate in a setting of L2 communication. This article is an adequate example for further PhD research because the research objective is to help Japanese students by researching elements involved in languages, culture and personal learning experience This research demonstrates a number of aspects reflected in the PhD research project in the following statement. First, the key part of this research will be advantageous to the PhD research project by using the model of WTC as a one of the potential approaches to a socio-cultural perspective for Japanese students relocating to a Canadian learning environment. The PhD research theme is attempting to explore the actual learning process embedded in the cultural complementarity process. Second, the author has conducted a thorough investigation of the students who elected to participate in this research to determine if they have the abilities to perform in the L2 learning setting. The learners lack of confidence during the conversation, points the PhD research project to design a method in order to progress beyond the past learning experience and integrate current learning processes with the education programs designed to help the particular international students obtain fruitful intercultural experiences. Last but not least, the new technological tool, AMOS used for inspecting a program, will assist the PhD research project to design and develop instructional languages in a learning context, will be invaluable.

Reference

Biggs, J. B. (1987). Student approaches to learning and studying. Hawthorn, Victoria:

Australian Council for Educational Research.

Black, J. S., & Mendenhall, M. (1990). Cross-cultural training effectiveness: A review and theory framework for future research. Academy of Management Review, 15(1), 113-136.

Freed, B. F. (1998). An overview of issues and research in language learning in a study abroad setting. The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 4(2), 31-60.

Greene, M. (1971). Curriculum and consciousness. Teachers College Record, 73(2), 253-269.

Greene, M. (1993). The passions of pluralism multiculturalism and the expanding community. Educational Researcher, 22(1), 13-18. doi: 10.3102/0013189X022001013

Masemann, V. L. (1982). Critical ethnography in the study of comparative education. Comparative Education Review, 26(1), 1-15.

Miller, J. P., & Seller, W. (1990). Curriculum: Perspectives and practice. Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman.

Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada. (2010). The current state of multiculturalism in Canada and research themes on Canadian multiculturalism 2008–2010 (Catalogue No. Ci96). Retrieved from http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/pdf/pub/multi-state.pdf

Pinar, W. (Ed.). (1998). The passionate mind of Maxine Greene: “I am – not yet”. Bristol, PA: Falmer Press.

Resnick, L.B. (1989). Introduction. In L.B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser (pp. 1–24). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Richardson, W. (2006). Blogs, wikis, podcast, and other powerful web tools for classrooms.

Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Sleeter, C.E., & Grant, C. A. (2009). Making choices for multicultural education: Five approaches to race, class and gender. New York: Wiley.

Sumara, D. J. (2002). Why reading literature in schools still matters: Imagination,

interpretation, insight. Mahwah, NJ: Laurence Eribaum.

Taylor, E.W. (1994a). A learning model for becoming interculturally competent. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 18(3), 389-408.

Taylor, E.W. (1994b). Intercultural competency: A transformative learning process. Adult Education Quarterly, 44(3), 154-174.

Winter, E., & Madularea, A. (2014). Multiculturalism research synthesis 2009 - 2013. Retrieved from http://ceris.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/CERIS-Research-Synthesis-on-M...

Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The Japanese EFL context. The Modern Language Journal, 86(1), 54–66. doi: 10.1111/1540-4781.00136